\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1}\bf Introduction to the Astronomy 110 Labs}{1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}Introduction}{1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.2}The Metric System}{1}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.2.1}Beyond the Metric System}{2}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.2.2}Changing Units and Scale Conversion}{3}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.2.3}Squares, Square Roots, and Exponents}{5}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.3}Scientific Notation}{6}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.4}Algebra}{8}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.5}Graphing and/or Plotting}{9}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2}The Origin of the Seasons}{15}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.1}Introduction}{15}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.2}The Seasons}{15}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.3}The Spinning, Revolving Earth}{20}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.4}Elevation Angle and the Concentration of Sunlight}{26}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.5}Summary (35 points)}{32}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{32}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{32}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3}The Surface of the Moon}{33}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.1}Introduction}{33}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.2}Craters and Maria}{34}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.3}Relative Ages on the Moon}{35}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.4}Lab Stations}{35}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.5}The Surface of the Moon}{36}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.6}The Chemical Composition of the Moon: Keys to its Origin}{41}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.7}Summary}{46}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.8}Possible Quiz Questions}{46}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.9}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, {\bf 5 points})}{46}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4}Shaping Surfaces in the Solar System: The Impacts of Comets \& Asteroids}{47}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.1}Introduction}{47}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.2}Asteroids and Comets}{47}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.3}Comets}{49}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.4}Composition and Components of a Comet}{49}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.5}Types of Comets}{50}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.6}The Impacts of Asteroids and Comets}{51}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.7}Exercise \#1: Creating Impact Craters}{51}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.7.1}Impact crater questions}{53}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.8}Crater Illumination}{53}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.9}Exercise \#2: Building a Comet}{54}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.9.1}Comets and Light}{55}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.9.2}Comet Strength}{55}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.9.3}Comet Questions}{56}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.10}Summary}{59}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.11}Possible Quiz Questions}{59}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.12}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{59}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5}Introduction to the Geology of the Terrestrial Planets}{61}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.1}Introduction}{61}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.2}Topographic Map Projections}{62}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.3}Global Comparisons}{63}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.4}Detailed Comparison of the Surfaces of the Terrestrial Planets}{66}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.5}Erosion Processes and Evidence for Water}{68}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.6}Volcanoes and Tectonic Activity}{71}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.7}Summary (35 points)}{75}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.8}Possible Quiz Questions}{75}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.9}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{75}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6}Kepler's Laws and Gravitation}{77}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.1}Introduction}{77}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.2}Gravity}{78}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.3}Kepler's Laws}{79}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.4}Going Beyond the Solar System}{88}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.5}Summary (35 points)}{94}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{94}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{94}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {7}The Orbit of Mercury}{95}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.1}Introduction}{95}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {7.1.1}Eastern and Western Elongations}{97}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {7.1.2}Why Greatest Elongations are Special}{98}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.2}The Orbits of Earth and Mercury}{100}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {7.2.1}The Data}{100}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.3}Summary (35 points)}{108}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.4}Possible Quiz Questions}{108}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.5}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{108}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {8}Measuring Distances Using Parallax}{109}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.1}Introduction}{109}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.2}Parallax in the classroom}{110}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.3}Measuring distances using parallax}{111}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.3.1}Angular motion of an object}{111}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.3.2}Distance between the vantage points}{113}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.3.3}Using parallax measurements to determine the distance to an object}{113}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.4}Using Parallax to measure distances on Earth, and within the Solar System}{115}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.5}Distances to stars using parallax, and the ``Parsec''}{116}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.6}Questions}{118}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.7}Summary (35 points) }{121}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.8}Possible Quiz Questions}{121}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.9}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points )}{121}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {9}Optics}{123}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.1}Introduction}{123}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.2}Discussion}{123}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.3}Reflective Optics: Mirrors}{124}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.4}Refractive Optics: Lenses}{127}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.5}Making a Telescope}{129}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {9.5.1}The Magnifying and Light Collecting Power of a Telescope}{130}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.6}Summary (35 points)}{134}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.7}Possible Quiz Questions}{134}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points )}{134}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {10}The Power of Light: Understanding Spectroscopy}{137}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.1}Introduction}{137}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.2}Blackbody Radiation}{138}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.3}Absorption and Emission Lines}{138}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.3.1}The Bohr Model of the Atom}{139}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.3.2}Kirchoff's Laws}{141}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.4}Creating a Spectrum}{142}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.5}Observing Blackbody Sources with the Spectrograph}{143}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.6}Quantitative Behavior of Blackbody Radiation}{145}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.7}Spectral Lines Experiment}{147}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.7.1}Spark Tubes}{147}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.7.2}Emission-line Spectra Experiment}{147}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.7.3}The Unknown Element}{147}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.8}Questions}{148}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.9}Summary (35 points)}{151}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.10}Possible Quiz Questions}{151}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.11}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{151}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {11}Our Sun}{155}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.1}Introduction}{155}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.2}Layers of the Sun}{156}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.3}Sunspots}{156}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.4}Solar Phenomenon}{158}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.5}Lab Exercises}{158}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.5.1}Exercise \#1: Getting familiar with the Size and Appearance of the Sun}{159}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.5.2}Exercise \#2: Exploring Magnetic Fields}{163}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.5.3}Optional Exercise: Generating a magnetic field with an electric current}{166}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.5.4}Exercise \#3: Looking at the Sun}{168}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.6}Summary (35 points)}{170}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{170}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {12}The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram}{171}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.1}Introduction}{171}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.2}Magnitudes and Color Index}{173}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.3}The Color-Magnitude HR Diagram}{175}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.4}The Color-Magnitude Diagram for the Pleiades}{175}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {12.4.1}Procedure}{180}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {12.4.2}Converting Diameters to Magnitudes}{180}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {12.4.3}Constructing a Color-Magnitude Diagram}{181}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.5}Results}{181}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.6}Summary (35 points)}{184}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.7}Possible Quiz Questions}{184}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{184}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {13}Mapping the Galaxy}{187}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.1}Introduction}{187}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.2}Getting used to the ideas}{187}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.3}Map Projections}{187}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.4}The Contents of Our Milky Way Galaxy}{192}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.5}Exercises}{194}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.6}Questions}{198}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.7}Summary (35 points)}{200}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.8}Possible Quiz Questions}{200}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.9}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{200}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {14}Galaxy Morphology}{203}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.1}Introduction}{203}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.2}Our Home: The Milky Way Galaxy}{203}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.3}Galaxy Types: Spirals Ellipticals, and Irregulars}{205}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {14.3.1}Spiral Galaxies}{206}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {14.3.2}Elliptical Galaxies}{208}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {14.3.3}Irregular Galaxies}{209}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {14.3.4}Galaxy Classification Issues}{210}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.4}Lab Exercises}{211}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.5}Summary (35 points)}{222}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{222}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{222}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {15}How Many Galaxies are there in the Universe?}{223}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {15.1}Introduction}{223}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {15.2}Exercise Section}{223}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {15.2.1}Direct Measurement, Measurement Error}{223}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {15.2.2}Estimation}{224}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {15.3}How many galaxies are there in the Universe?}{226}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {15.4}The Mass and Density of the Universe (Contained in Galaxies)}{231}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {15.5}Summary (35 points)}{235}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {15.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{235}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {15.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{235}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {16}Hubble's Law: Finding the Age of the Universe}{237}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {16.1}Introduction}{237}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {16.2}Doppler Shift}{237}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {16.3}Hubble's Law}{239}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {16.4}The Age of the Universe}{241}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {16.5}How Do we Measure Distances to Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters?}{242}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {16.6}Questions}{244}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {16.7}Summary (35 points)}{246}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {16.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{246}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {17}\bf Discovering Exoplanets}{249}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {17.1}Introduction}{249}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {17.2}Why are Exoplanets so hard to see?}{250}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {17.3}Exoplanet Transits}{251}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {17.3.1}Real exoplanet transits}{255}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {17.4}Exoplanet Detection by Radial Velocity Variations}{257}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {17.5}Radial Velocity and the Doppler Effect}{265}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {17.5.1}Take-Home Exercise (35 points total)}{269}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {17.5.2}Possible Quiz Questions}{270}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {17.5.3}Extra Credit (make sure you get permission from your TA before attempting, 5 points)}{270}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {18}APPENDIX A: Fundamental Quantities}{271}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {19}APPENDIX B: Accuracy and Significant Digits}{272}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {20}APPENDIX C: Unit Conversions}{273}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {21}APPENDIX D: Uncertainties and Errors}{274}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {22}Observatory Worksheets}{275}