\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1}\bf Tools for Success in ASTR 1115G}{1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}Introduction}{1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.2}A Note About Ratios}{1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.3}The Metric System}{3}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.4}Beyond the Metric System}{3}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.5}Changing Units and Scale Conversion}{4}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.5.1}Map Exercises}{4}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.6}Squares, Square Roots, and Exponents}{6}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.7}Scientific Notation}{7}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.8}Calculator Issues}{9}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.8.1}Scientific Notation on a Calculator}{9}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.8.2}Order of Operations}{10}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.9}Graphing and/or Plotting}{10}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.9.1}The Mechanics of Plotting}{11}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.9.2}Plotting and Interpreting a Graph}{12}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.10}Does it Make Sense?}{14}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.11}Putting it All Together}{15}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2}\bf Scale Model of the Solar System}{17}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.1}Introduction}{17}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.2}The Distances of the Planets From the Sun}{18}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.3}Sizes of Planets}{19}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.4}Questions About the Football Field Model}{21}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.5}Take Home Exercise (35 points total)}{23}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{26}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{26}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3}The Origin of the Seasons}{27}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.1}Introduction}{27}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.2}The Seasons}{27}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.3}The Spinning, Revolving Earth}{32}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.4}Elevation Angle and the Concentration of Sunlight}{38}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.5}Summary (35 points)}{43}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{43}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{43}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4}\bf Phases of the Moon}{44}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.1}Introduction}{44}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.2}Exercise 1 (10 points)}{46}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.3}Exercise 2 (10 points)}{47}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.4}Exercise 3 (10 points)}{48}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.5}Lunar Phases, and When They Are Observable}{49}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.6}Exercise 4 (6 points)}{50}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.7}Exercise 5 (6 points)}{51}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.8}Exercise 6 (6 points)}{52}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.9}Demonstrating Your Understanding of Lunar Phases}{53}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.10}Take-Home Exercise (35 points total)}{54}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.11}Possible Quiz Questions}{54}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.12}Extra Credit (make sure you get permission from your TA before attempting, 5 points)}{54}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5}\bf Kepler's Laws}{56}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.1}Introduction}{56}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.2}Gravity}{57}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.3}Kepler's Laws}{58}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.4}Going Beyond the Solar System}{66}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.5}Take Home Exercise (35 points total)}{70}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{70}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6}The Power of Light: Understanding Spectroscopy}{71}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.1}Introduction}{71}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.2}Blackbody Radiation}{72}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.3}Absorption and Emission Lines}{72}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.3.1}The Bohr Model of the Atom}{72}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.3.2}Kirchoff's Laws}{75}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.4}Creating a Spectrum}{76}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.5}Observing Blackbody Sources with the Spectrograph}{77}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.6}Quantitative Behavior of Blackbody Radiation}{78}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.7}Spectral Lines Experiment}{79}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.7.1}Spark Tubes}{79}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.7.2}Emission-line Spectra Experiment}{80}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.7.3}The Unknown Element}{82}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.8}Questions}{83}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.9}Summary (35 points)}{84}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.10}Possible Quiz Questions}{84}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.11}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{84}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {7}Optics}{85}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.1}Introduction}{85}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.2}Discussion}{85}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.3}Reflective Optics: Mirrors}{86}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.4}Refractive Optics: Lenses}{90}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.5}Making a Telescope}{93}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {7.5.1}The Magnifying and Light Collecting Power of a Telescope}{95}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.6}Summary (35 points)}{98}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.7}Possible Quiz Questions}{98}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points )}{98}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {8}Measuring Distances Using Parallax}{99}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.1}Introduction}{99}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.2}Parallax in the classroom}{100}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.3}Measuring distances using parallax}{101}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.3.1}Angular motion of an object}{101}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.3.2}Distance between the vantage points}{102}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.3.3}Using parallax measurements to determine the distance to an object}{102}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.4}Using Parallax to measure distances on Earth, and within the Solar System}{104}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.4.1} The ``Non-Tangent'' way to figure out distances from angles}{104}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.5}Distances to stars using parallax, and the ``Parsec''}{105}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.6}Questions}{106}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.7}Summary (35 points) }{109}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.8}Possible Quiz Questions}{109}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.9}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points )}{109}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {9}Our Sun}{110}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.1}Introduction}{110}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.2}Layers of the Sun}{111}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.3}Sunspots}{111}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.4}Solar Phenomenon}{112}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.5}Lab Exercises}{113}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {9.5.1}Exercise \#1: Getting familiar with the Size and Appearance of the Sun}{114}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {9.5.2}Exercise \#2: Exploring Magnetic Fields}{118}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {9.5.3}Exercise \#3: Looking at the Sun}{121}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.6}Summary (35 points)}{123}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{123}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {10}The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram}{124}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.1}Introduction}{124}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.2}Magnitudes and Color Index}{126}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.3}The Color-Magnitude HR Diagram}{128}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.4}The Color-Magnitude Diagram for the Pleiades}{128}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.4.1}Procedure}{133}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.4.2}Converting Diameters to Magnitudes}{133}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.4.3}Constructing a Color-Magnitude Diagram}{134}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.5}Results}{134}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.6}Summary (35 points)}{137}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.7}Possible Quiz Questions}{137}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{137}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {11}\bf Characterizing Exoplanets}{140}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.1}Introduction}{140}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.2}Types of Exoplanets}{140}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.2.1}Gas Giants}{140}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.2.2}Hot Jupiters}{140}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.2.3}Water Worlds}{141}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.2.4}Exo-Earths}{141}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.2.5}Super-Earths}{141}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.2.6}Chthonian Planets}{141}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.3}Detection Methods}{141}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.3.1}Transit Method/Light Curves}{141}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.3.2}Direct Detection}{142}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.3.3}Radial Velocity (Stellar Wobble)}{143}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.4}Characterizing Exoplanets from Transit Light Curves}{144}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.5}Deriving Parameters from Transit Light Curves}{145}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.6}The Habitable Zone}{153}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.7}Classifying Your Exoplanets}{155}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.8}Take Home Exercise (35 points total)}{158}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.9}Possible Quiz Questions}{158}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.10}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points )}{158}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {12}Galaxy Morphology}{160}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.1}Introduction}{160}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.2}Our Home: The Milky Way Galaxy}{160}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.3}Galaxy Types: Spirals Ellipticals, and Irregulars}{162}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {12.3.1}Spiral Galaxies}{163}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {12.3.2}Elliptical Galaxies}{164}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {12.3.3}Irregular Galaxies}{166}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {12.3.4}Galaxy Classification Issues}{166}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.4}Lab Exercises}{167}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.5}Summary (35 points)}{179}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{179}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{179}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {13}Hubble's Law: Finding the Age of the Universe}{180}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.1}Introduction}{180}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.2}Doppler Shift}{180}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.3}Hubble's Law}{182}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.4}The Age of the Universe}{185}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.5}How Do we Measure Distances to Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters?}{186}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.6}Questions}{188}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.7}Summary (35 points)}{189}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {13.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{189}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {14}How Many Galaxies are there in the Universe?}{190}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.1}Introduction}{190}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.2}Exercise Section}{190}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {14.2.1}Direct Measurement, Measurement Error}{190}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {14.2.2}Estimation}{191}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.3}How many galaxies are there in the Universe?}{191}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.4}The Mass and Density of the Universe (Contained in Galaxies)}{195}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.5}Summary (35 points)}{199}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{199}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {14.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{199}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {15}APPENDIX A: Fundamental Quantities}{201}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {16}APPENDIX B: Accuracy and Significant Digits}{202}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {17}APPENDIX C: Unit Conversions}{203}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {18}APPENDIX D: Uncertainties and Errors}{204}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {19}Observatory Worksheets}{205}