\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1}\bf Introduction to the Astronomy 1115G Labs}{1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}Introduction}{1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.2}The Metric System}{1}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.2.1}Beyond the Metric System}{2}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.2.2}Changing Units and Scale Conversion}{3}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {1.2.3}Squares, Square Roots, and Exponents}{4}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.3}Scientific Notation}{6}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.4}Algebra}{8}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.5}Graphing and/or Plotting}{9}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2}The Origin of the Seasons}{14}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.1}Introduction}{14}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.2}The Seasons}{14}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.3}The Spinning, Revolving Earth}{19}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.4}Elevation Angle and the Concentration of Sunlight}{25}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.5}Summary (35 points)}{30}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{30}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{30}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3}\bf Kepler's Laws}{31}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.1}Introduction}{31}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.2}Gravity}{32}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.3}Kepler's Laws}{33}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.4}Going Beyond the Solar System}{42}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.5}Take Home Exercise (35 points total)}{47}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{47}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting this, 5 points)}{47}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4}The Power of Light: Understanding Spectroscopy}{49}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.1}Introduction}{49}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.2}Blackbody Radiation}{50}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.3}Absorption and Emission Lines}{50}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.3.1}The Bohr Model of the Atom}{50}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.3.2}Kirchoff's Laws}{53}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.4}Creating a Spectrum}{54}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.5}Observing Blackbody Sources with the Spectrograph}{55}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.6}Quantitative Behavior of Blackbody Radiation}{56}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.7}Spectral Lines Experiment}{57}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.7.1}Spark Tubes}{57}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.7.2}Emission-line Spectra Experiment}{58}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {4.7.3}The Unknown Element}{60}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.8}Questions}{61}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.9}Summary (35 points)}{62}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.10}Possible Quiz Questions}{62}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.11}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{62}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5}Optics}{63}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.1}Introduction}{63}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.2}Discussion}{63}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.3}Reflective Optics: Mirrors}{64}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.4}Refractive Optics: Lenses}{68}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.5}Making a Telescope}{71}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {5.5.1}The Magnifying and Light Collecting Power of a Telescope}{73}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.6}Summary (35 points)}{76}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.7}Possible Quiz Questions}{76}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points )}{76}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6}Measuring Distances Using Parallax}{77}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.1}Introduction}{77}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.2}Parallax in the classroom}{78}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.3}Measuring distances using parallax}{79}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.3.1}Angular motion of an object}{79}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.3.2}Distance between the vantage points}{80}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.3.3}Using parallax measurements to determine the distance to an object}{80}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.4}Using Parallax to measure distances on Earth, and within the Solar System}{82}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {6.4.1} The ``Non-Tangent'' way to figure out distances from angles}{82}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.5}Distances to stars using parallax, and the ``Parsec''}{83}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.6}Questions}{84}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.7}Summary (35 points) }{87}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.8}Possible Quiz Questions}{87}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.9}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points )}{87}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {7}Our Sun}{88}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.1}Introduction}{88}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.2}Layers of the Sun}{89}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.3}Sunspots}{89}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.4}Solar Phenomenon}{90}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.5}Lab Exercises}{91}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {7.5.1}Exercise \#1: Getting familiar with the Size and Appearance of the Sun}{92}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {7.5.2}Exercise \#2: Exploring Magnetic Fields}{96}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {7.5.3}Exercise \#3: Looking at the Sun}{99}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.6}Summary (35 points)}{101}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {7.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{101}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {8}The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram}{102}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.1}Introduction}{102}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.2}Magnitudes and Color Index}{104}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.3}The Color-Magnitude HR Diagram}{106}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.4}The Color-Magnitude Diagram for the Pleiades}{106}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.4.1}Procedure}{111}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.4.2}Converting Diameters to Magnitudes}{111}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {8.4.3}Constructing a Color-Magnitude Diagram}{112}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.5}Results}{112}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.6}Summary (35 points)}{115}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.7}Possible Quiz Questions}{115}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {8.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{115}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {9}Shaping Surfaces in the Solar System: The Impacts of Comets \& Asteroids}{118}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.1}Introduction}{118}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.2}Asteroids and Comets}{118}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.3}Comets}{120}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.4}Composition and Components of a Comet}{120}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.5}Types of Comets}{121}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.6}The Impacts of Asteroids and Comets}{122}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.7}Exercise \#1: Creating Impact Craters}{122}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {9.7.1}Impact crater questions}{124}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.8}Crater Illumination}{125}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.9}Exercise \#2: Building a Comet}{125}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {9.9.1}Comets and Light}{126}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {9.9.2}Comet Strength}{126}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {9.9.3}Comet Questions}{127}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.10}Summary}{129}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.11}Possible Quiz Questions}{129}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {9.12}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{129}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {10}Galaxy Morphology}{130}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.1}Introduction}{130}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.2}Our Home: The Milky Way Galaxy}{130}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.3}Galaxy Types: Spirals Ellipticals, and Irregulars}{132}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.3.1}Spiral Galaxies}{133}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.3.2}Elliptical Galaxies}{134}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.3.3}Irregular Galaxies}{136}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {10.3.4}Galaxy Classification Issues}{136}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.4}Lab Exercises}{137}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.5}Summary (35 points)}{149}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{149}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {10.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{149}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {11}How Many Galaxies are there in the Universe?}{150}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.1}Introduction}{150}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.2}Exercise Section}{150}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.2.1}Direct Measurement, Measurement Error}{150}
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {11.2.2}Estimation}{151}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.3}How many galaxies are there in the Universe?}{151}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.4}The Mass and Density of the Universe (Contained in Galaxies)}{155}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.5}Summary (35 points)}{159}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.6}Possible Quiz Questions}{159}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {11.7}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{159}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {12}Hubble's Law: Finding the Age of the Universe}{161}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.1}Introduction}{161}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.2}Doppler Shift}{161}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.3}Hubble's Law}{163}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.4}The Age of the Universe}{166}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.5}How Do we Measure Distances to Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters?}{167}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.6}Questions}{169}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.7}Summary (35 points)}{170}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {12.8}Extra Credit (ask your TA for permission before attempting, 5 points)}{170}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {13}APPENDIX A: Fundamental Quantities}{171}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {14}APPENDIX B: Accuracy and Significant Digits}{172}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {15}APPENDIX C: Unit Conversions}{173}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {16}APPENDIX D: Uncertainties and Errors}{174}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {17}Observatory Worksheets}{175}